Laws of Universe

Carlos Ismael Noriega

First Peruvian-born person in space.

(born 1959) is a Peruvian and U.S. citizen, NASA employee, a former NASA astronaut and a retired U.S. Marine Corps Lieutenant Colonel..

Noriega was born on October 8, 1959, in Lima, Peru, but moved to Santa Clara, California when he was only 5. He is married to the former Wendy L. Thatcher; they have five children. i.

1977: Graduated from Wilcox High School, Santa Clara, California

1981: Bachelor of science degree in

computer science

from University of Southern California

1990: Master of science degree in computer science from the Naval Postgraduate School

1990: Master of science degree in space systems operations from the Naval Postgraduate School.

Selected by NASA in December 1994, Noriega reported to the Johnson Space Center in March 1995. He completed a year of training and evaluation, and was qualified for assignment as a mission specialist in May 1996. He held technical assignments in the Astronaut Office EVA/Robotics and Operations Planning Branches. Noriega flew on STS-84 in 1997 and STS-97 in 2000. He has logged over 461 hours in space including over 19 EVA hours in 3 space walks. Following STS-97, Noriega trained as the backup commander for ISS Expedition 6 and later as a member of the crew of STS-121. In July 2004, Noriega was replaced by Piers Sellers on the crew of STS-121 due to a temporary medical condition. While awaiting future flight assignment Noriega served as Chief, Exploration Systems Engineering Division, Engineering Directorate, Johnson Space Center. In January 2005, Noriega retired from the NASA Astronaut Corps, but continues to serve as the Manager, Advanced Projects Office, Constellation Program, Johnson Space Center.

Kathryn Dwyer Sullivan

first American woman to walk in space.( born October 3, 1951 in Paterson, New Jersey) is an American geologist and a former NASA astronaut. A crew member on three Space Shuttle missions, she is the first American woman to walk in space. She was confirmed by the U.S. Senate as Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere and NOAA Administrator on March 6, 2014.

Sullivan is a 1969 graduate of William Howard Taft High School in the Woodland Hills section of Los Angeles, California. She was awarded a bachelor of science degree in Earth Sciences from the University of California, Santa Cruz in 1973, as well as a Ph.D. in geology from Dalhousie University in 1978.^[1]

Sullivan performed the first EVA by an American woman during Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS-41-G on October 11, 1984. She flew on three space shuttle missions and logged 532 hours in space.

After leaving NASA, Sullivan served as president and CEO of the COSI Columbus, an interactive science center in Columbus, Ohio and as Director for Ohio State University's Battelle Center for Mathematics and Science Education Policy as well as a volunteer science advisor to COSI. She was appointed to the National Science Board by President Bush in 2004.

In 2009, Sullivan was elected to a three-year term as the chair of the Section on General Interest in Science and Engineering for the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez

First African and Black Man in Space .

Also First (born January 29, 1942) was the first Cuban citizen and the first person from a country in the Western Hemisphere other than the United States to travel into earth orbit. As a member of the crew of Soyuz 38, he became the first Latin American and the first person of African ancestry in space; he was proclaimed at the time as the first black cosmonaut.

Born in Guantánamo,Tamayo graduated from the Cuban Air Force Academy and became a pilot in the Cuban Air Force..

Tamayo was selected as part of the Soviet Union's seventh Intercosmos program on March 1, 1978. His backup in the Intercosmos program was fellow Cuban José López Falcón.

Tamayo, along with Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Romanenko, was launched into space aboard Soyuz 38 from Baikonur Cosmodrome on September 18, 1980, at 19:11 UTC. After docking with Salyut 6, Tamayo and Romanenko conducted experiments in an attempt to find what caused space adaptation syndrome (SAS), and perhaps even find a cure, and on the crystallisation of sucrose in microgravity, for the benefit of Cuba's sugar industry. The SAS experiment involved wearing special adjustable shoes for six hours every day that placed a load on the arch of the foot. After 124 orbits of the Earth (lasting 7 days, 20 hours and 43 minutes), Tamayo and Romanenko landed 180 km (110 mi) from Dzhezkazgan. The landing was risky, as it was during the night

1] Newton's Laws of Motion :

a] Newton's 1st law of motion :

Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change its state by force impressed.
b] Newton's 1st law of motion :

The change of momentum of a body is proportional to the impulse impressed on the body, and happens along the straight line on which that impulse is impressed.
c] Newton's 1st law of motion :

Law III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts.

2] Euler's law momentum :

a] Euler's 1st law of momentum :

Euler's first law states that the linear momentum of a body, p (also denoted G) is equal to the product of the mass of the body m and the velocity of its center of mass vcm: \mathbf p = m \mathbf v_{\rm cm}.
Internal forces between the particles that make up a body do not contribute to changing the total momentum of the body.[4]
The law is also stated as:\mathbf F = m \mathbf a_{\rm cm}.where acm = dvcm/dt is the acceleration of the centre of mass and F = dp/dt is the total applied force on the body. This is just the time derivative of the previous equation (m is a constant).

b] Euler's 2nd law of momentum :

Euler's second law states that the rate of change of angular momentum L (also denoted H) about a point that is fixed in an inertial reference frame, or is the mass center of the body, is equal to the sum of the external moments of force (torques) M (also denoted t or G) about that point:[1][2][3]
\mathbf M = {d\mathbf L \over dt}.
For rigid bodies translating and rotating in only 2d, this can be expressed as:[5]
\mathbf M = \mathbf r_{\rm cm} \times \mathbf a_{\rm cm} m + I \boldsymbol{\alpha},
where rcm is the position vector of the center of mass with respect to the point about which moments are summed, a is the angular acceleration of the body, and I is the moment of inertia. See also Euler's equations (rigid body dynamics).

3] Ampere's Law :

The line integral of the magnetic flux around a closed curve is proportional to the algebraic sum of electric currents flowing through that closed curve; or, in differential form curl B = J. This was later modified to add a second term when it was incorporated into Maxwell's equations.

4] Archimedes' Principle :

A body that is submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal in magnitude to the weight of the fluid that is displaced, and directed upward along a line through the center of gravity of the displaced fluid.

5] Avogadro's Hypothesis (1811) :

Equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules. It is, in fact, only true for ideal gases.

6] Bernoulli's Equation :

In an irrotational fluid, the sum of the static pressure, the weight of the fluid per unit mass times the height, and half the density times the velocity squared is constant throughout the fluid.

7] Biot-Savart Law :

A law which describes the contributions to a magnetic field by an electric current. It is analogous to Coulomb's law.

8] Boyle's Law (1662) :

Mariotte's law (1676) The product of the pressure and the volume of an ideal gas at constant temperature is a constant.

9] Bragg's Law (1912) :

When a beam of X-rays strikes a crystal surface in which the layers of atoms or ions are regularly separated, the maximum intensity of the reflected ray occurs when the complement of the angle of incidence, theta, the wavelength of the X-rays, lambda, and the distance between layers of atoms or ions, d, are related by the equation 2 d sin theta = n lambda,

10] Brownian Motion (1827) :

The continuous random motion of solid microscopic particles when suspended in a fluid medium due to the consequence of ongoing bombardment by atoms and molecules.

11] Casimir Effect :

A quantum mechanical effect, where two very large plates placed close to each other will experience an attractive force, in the absence of other forces. The cause is virtual particle-antiparticle pair creation in the vicinity of the plates. Also, the speed of light will be increased in the region between the two plates, in the direction perpendicular to them.

12] Causality Principle :

The principle that cause must always preceed effect. More formally, if an event A ("the cause") somehow influences an event B ("the effect") which occurs later in time, then event B cannot in turn have an influence on event A. That is, event B must occur at a later time t than event A, and further, all frames must agree upon this ordering.

13] Centrifugal Pseudoforce :

A pseudoforce on an object when it is moving in uniform circular motion. The "force" is directed outward from the center of motion.

14] Charles' Law (1787) :

The volume of an ideal gas at constant pressure is proportional to the thermodynamic temperature of that gas.

15] Cherenkov Radiation :

Radiation emitted by a massive particle which is moving faster than light in the medium through which it is traveling. No particle can travel faster than light in vacuum, but the speed of light in other media, such as water, glass, etc., are considerably lower. Cherenkov radiation is the electromagnetic analogue of the sonic boom, though Cherenkov radiation is a shockwave set up in the electromagnetic field.

16] Complementarity Principle :

The principle that a given system cannot exhibit both wave-like behavior and particle-like behavior at the same time. That is, certain experiments will reveal the wave-like nature of a system, and certain experiments will reveal the particle-like nature of a system, but no experiment will reveal both simultaneously.

17] Compton Effect (1923) :
An effect that demonstrates that photons (the quantum of electromagnetic radiation) have momentum. A photon fired at a stationary particle, such as an electron, will impart momentum to the electron and, since its energy has been decreased, will experience a corresponding decrease in frequency.

18] Conservation Laws :

Conservation of mass-energy The total mass-energy of a closed system remains constant. Conservation of electric charge The total electric charge of a closed system remains constant. Conservation of linear momentum The total linear momentum of a closed system remains constant. Conservation of angular momentum The total angular momentum of a closed system remains constant.
There are several other laws that deal with particle physics, such as conservation of baryon number, of strangeness, etc., which are conserved in some fundamental interactions (such as the electromagnetic interaction) but not others (such as the weak interaction).

19] Constancy Principle :
One of the postulates of A. Einstein's special theory of relativity, which puts forth that the speed of light in vacuum is measured as the same speed to all observers, regardless of their relative motion.

20] Continuity Equation :

An equation which states that a fluid flowing through a pipe flows at a rate which is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the pipe. It is in essence a restatement of the conservation of mass during constant flow.

21] Copernican Principle (1624) :

The idea, suggested by Copernicus, that the Sun, not the Earth, is at the center of the Universe. We now know that neither idea is correct.

22] Coriolis Pseudoforce (1835) :

A pseudoforce which arises because of motion relative to a frame of reference which is itself rotating relative to a second, inertial frame. The magnitude of the Coriolis "force" is dependent on the speed of the object relative to the noninertial frame, and the direction of the "force" is orthogonal to the object's velocity.

23] Correspondence Principle :

The principle that when a new, more general theory is put forth, it must reduce to the more specialized (and usually simpler) theory under normal circumstances. There are correspondence principles for general relativity to special relativity and special relativity to Newtonian mechanics, but the most widely known correspondence principle is that of quantum mechanics to classical mechanics.

24] Coulomb's Law :

The primary law for electrostatics, analogous to Newton's law of universal gravitation. It states that the force between two point charges is proportional to the algebraic product of their respective charges as well as proportional to the inverse square of the distance between them.

28] Dulong-Petit Law (1819) :

The molar heat capacity is approximately equal to the three times the ideal gas constant: Einstein Field Equation The cornerstone of

29] Einstein's general theory of relativity :

relating the gravitational tensor G to the stress-energy tensor T by the simple equation G = 8 pi T.

30] Einstein's Mass-Energy Equation :

The energy E of a particle is equal to its mass M times the square of the speed of light c, giving rise to the best known physics equation in the Universe: E = M c2.Equivalence Principle The basic postulate of A. Einstein's general theory of relativity, which posits that an acceleration is fundamentally indistinguishable from a gravitational field.

31] Faraday's Law :

The line integral of the electric field around a closed curve is proportional to the instantaneous time rate of change of the magnetic flux through a surface bounded by that closed curve; in differential form curl E = -dB/dt, where here d/dt represents partial differentiation.

32] Faraday's Laws of electrolysis :

Faraday's first law of electrolysis The amount of chemical change during electrolysis is proportional to the charge passed.

33] Faraday's second law of electrolysis :

The charge Q required to deposit or liberate a mass m is proportional to the charge z of the ion, the mass, and inversely proportional to the relative ionic mass M; mathematically Q = F m z / M,

34] Faraday's first law of electromagnetic induction :

An electromotive force is induced in a conductor when the magnetic field surrounding it changes.

35] Faraday's second law of electromagnetic induction :

The magnitude of the electromotive force is proportional to the rate of change of the field.

36]Faraday's third law of electromagnetic induction :

The sense of the induced electromotive force depends on the direction of the rate of the change of the field.

37]Fermat's Principle

The principle states that the path taken by a ray of light between any two points in a system is always the path that takes the least time.

38] Gauss'Law :

The electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the algebraic sum of electric charges contained within that closed surface; in differential form div E = rho, where rho is the charge density.

39] Gauss' Law for magnetic fields :

The magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero; no magnetic charges exist; in differential form
div B = 0.

40] Hall Effect :

When charged particles flow through a tube which has both an electric field and a magnetic field (perpendicular to the electric field) present in it, only certain velocities of the charged particles are preferred, and will make it un-deviated through the tube; the rest will be deflected into the sides.

41] Hooke's Law :

The stress applied to any solid is proportional to the strain it produces within the elastic limit for that solid. The constant of that proportionality is the Young modulus of elasticity for that substance.

42] Huygens' Principle :

The mechanical propagation of a wave (specifically, of light) is equivalent to assuming that every point on the wavefront acts as point source of wave emission

43] Ideal Gas Law :

An equation which sums up the ideal gas laws in one simple equation P V = n R T,

44] Joule-Thomson Effect :

Joule-Kelvin EffectThe change in temperature that occurs when a gas expands into a region of lower pressure.

44] Joule's Laws :

Joule's first law The heat Q produced when a current I flows through a resistance R for a specified time t is given by Q = I2 R t .

45] Kirchhoff's Rules :

loop rule The sum of the potential differences encountered in a round trip around any closed loop in a circuit is zero.

46] Point rule :

The sum of the currents toward a branch point is equal to the sum of the currents away from the same branch point.

47] Kohlrausch's Law :

If a salt is dissolved in water, the conductivity of the solution is the sum of two values -- one depending on the positive ions and the other on the negative ions

48] Lambert's Laws :

Lambert's first law The illuminance on a surface illuminated by light falling on it perpendicularly from a point source is proportional to the inverse square of the distance between the surface and the source.

49] Lambert's second law :

If the rays meet the surface at an angle, then the illuminance is proportional to the cosine of the angle with the normal.

50] Lambert's third law :
The luminous intensity of light decreases exponentially with distance as it travels through an absorbing medium.

51] Laplace Equation :

For steady-state heat conduction in one dimension, the temperature distribution is the solution to Laplace's equation, which states that the second derivative of temperature with respect to displacement is zero.

52] Lenz's Law (1835) :

An induced electric current always flows in such a direction that it opposes the change producing it.

54] Mach Number :

The ratio of the speed of an object in a given medium to the speed of sound in that medium.

55] Mach's Principle (1870) :

The inertia of any particular particle or particles of matter is attributable to the interaction between that piece of matter and the rest of the Universe. Thus, a body in isolation would have no inertia.

56] Maxwell's Equations (1864) :

Gauss' law The electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the algebraic sum of electric charges contained within that closed surface; in differential form div E = rho, where rho is the charge density.

57] Gauss' law :

for magnetic fields The magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero; no magnetic charges exist. In differential form div B = 0.